Pre-Columbian Civilizations refer to the indigenous cultures and societies of the Americas prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. These civilizations developed complex social, political, and economic systems, some of which were highly advanced for their time.
The Olmec civilization, which flourished from around 1200 to 400 BCE in the present-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco, is often considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica. Known for their colossal basalt heads, the Olmecs are believed to have influenced later civilizations with their art, architecture, and religious practices.
The Maya civilization spanned from around 2000 BCE to 1500 CE in regions that now include southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. The Maya are renowned for their advancements in writing (using hieroglyphics), astronomy, mathematics (including the concept of zero), and architecture, notably their stepped pyramids and cities like Tikal.
The Aztec Empire, centered in the Valley of Mexico, was at its height in the 15th and early 16th centuries when the Spanish conquistadors arrived. The Aztecs are known for their complex social structure, sophisticated agriculture, particularly the chinampas or "floating gardens," and the extensive use of human sacrifice in religious rituals.
The Inca Empire, which extended from Ecuador to central Chile, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. At its peak in the 16th century, the Inca developed a sophisticated administrative system, impressive road networks, and monumental architecture, including the famous city of Machu Picchu.
Many Pre-Columbian Civilizations shared several characteristics:
These civilizations existed in isolation from the Old World until the Columbian Exchange, which led to significant changes due to the introduction of diseases, new technologies, and cultural exchanges. The encounter with Europeans often resulted in the decline of these societies due to conquest, disease, and the cultural upheavals that followed.