Islam has a long and multifaceted history in India, dating back to the 7th century CE, primarily through peaceful trade routes rather than military conquests in its initial phases. The religion's arrival predates many of the later invasions and establishments of Muslim rule, shaping the cultural, social, and political landscape of the Indian subcontinent over centuries.
The earliest interactions between Islam and India occurred via Arab merchants who established trade links with the coastal regions. Historical records indicate that the first Muslim travelers arrived on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE, during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad. These traders, primarily from the Arabian Peninsula, frequented ports along the Malabar Coast and Konkan-Gujarat coast, exchanging goods like spices, textiles, and precious stones. The first known mosque in India, the Cheraman Juma Mosque in Kerala, was constructed around 629 CE by an Arab trader named Malik Dinar, reportedly with the patronage of the local Chera king who had converted to Islam after hearing of the Prophet's death.
This early phase of Islam in India was characterized by voluntary conversions and cultural exchanges. Arab Muslims settled in small communities, intermarrying with locals and integrating into the socio-economic fabric. By the late 7th century, permanent settlements emerged, particularly in coastal areas, fostering a syncretic blend of Islamic and Indian traditions. Sufi mystics played a pivotal role in the peaceful propagation of Islam, emphasizing spiritual equality and attracting converts from lower castes disillusioned with the rigid Hindu caste system.
The military dimension of Islam's history in India began in the 8th century with the Umayyad Caliphate's campaigns. In 711-712 CE, the young general Muhammad bin Qasim led an expedition into Sindh (modern-day Pakistan, then part of the Indian subcontinent) to rescue Arab traders held captive by the local ruler Raja Dahir. The conquest of Sindh marked the first Muslim foothold on the subcontinent, but it was not accompanied by widespread forced conversions. Non-Muslims, including Hindus and Buddhists, were granted dhimmi status under Islamic law, allowing them to practice their faiths while paying the jizya tax. The local population largely retained their religions, with conversions occurring gradually due to the appeal of Islamic egalitarianism.
Subsequent invasions followed, including those by Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century and Muhammad of Ghor in the late 12th century, leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE. This Turkic-Afghan dynasty ruled northern India for over three centuries, introducing Persianate culture, architecture (e.g., Qutub Minar), and administrative systems. The Sultanate period saw further spread of Islam through patronage of Sufi orders like the Chishti and Suhrawardi, whose shrines became centers of devotion and conversion.
The Mughal Empire (1526-1857 CE), founded by Babur, represented the zenith of Muslim rule in India. Emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb expanded the empire across much of the subcontinent. Akbar's policy of religious tolerance, including the Din-i Ilahi syncretic faith, promoted harmony, while later rulers like Aurangzeb enforced stricter Islamic policies. Despite this, Islam did not become the majority religion; the 1941 census of undivided India recorded Muslims at about 27% of the population, reflecting organic growth rather than coercion.
The empire's decline after Aurangzeb's death in 1707 CE led to regional Muslim kingdoms like the Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Bengal, and Deccan Sultanates. British colonial rule from the mid-18th century marginalized Muslim political power, culminating in the 1857 revolt, after which the Mughals were formally dissolved.
Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent - Wikipedia
Today, India hosts the world's third-largest Muslim population, estimated at over 200 million, comprising about 14-15% of the total populace. If considered a separate nation, Indian Muslims would rank as the fifth-most populous country. The community is diverse, including Sunni (majority), Shia, and smaller sects like Ahmadis and Ismailis. Muslims are concentrated in states like Uttar Pradesh (over 38 million), West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala, with significant urban populations in cities like Hyderabad, Lucknow, and Mumbai.
Islam in India has deeply influenced art, architecture (e.g., Taj Mahal), literature (Urdu poetry), music (qawwali), and cuisine (biryani, kebabs). Festivals like Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are widely celebrated, alongside unique Indian Muslim traditions such as Muharram processions. Personal laws governing marriage, inheritance, and divorce (Sharia-based) coexist with the secular Indian legal system, as seen in cases like the Shah Bano case (1985), which highlighted tensions between Islamic personal law and uniform civil code debates.
Historically, conversions to Islam were driven by factors like social mobility, escape from caste oppression, and Sufi influence, rather than the sword. Regions like Bengal and Kerala saw high conversion rates through these means, leading to dense Muslim populations.
How Islam Spread in India - IslamiCity
Throughout history, Islam in India has coexisted with Hinduism and other faiths, though periods of tension arose during invasions and colonial manipulations. Post-independence (1947), the partition of India and Pakistan led to mass migrations and communal riots, yet Indian Muslims remained a vital part of the secular republic. Contemporary issues include socioeconomic disparities, with Muslims often facing higher poverty and literacy challenges, and occasional communal violence, but the